FENÔMENOS PRECEDENTES DE MEIOS DE COMUNICAÇÃO CONTEMPORÂNEOS DA RÚSSIA E ESPANHA COMO ESTRUTURAS COGNITIVAS DE UMA PERSONALIDADE LINGUÍSTICA


FENOMENOS DETERMINANTES DE MEDIOS ESPAÑOLES Y RUSOS DE DIFUSION COMO ESTRUCTURAS COGNITIVAS DE IDENTIDAD LINGÜISTICA


PRECEDENT PHENOMENA OF THE CONTEMPORARY RUSSIAN AND SPANISH MASS MEDIA AS COGNITIVE STRUCTURES OF A LINGUISTIC IDENTITY


Lilia V. MOISEENKO1

Natalia F. MIKHEEVA2


RESUMO: O estudo é importante porque os fenômenos precedentes, que transmitem tanto os valores culturais tradicionais como os recém-criados, estão mais representados na linguagem midiática. Uma abordagem cognitiva, proposta no artigo, destina-se a identificar o papel do conhecimento (linguístico, não-linguístico, individual) na formação do significado de uma unidade precedente, que é objeto principal de estudos em Ciência Cognitiva. O exemplo de nomes precedentes universais (Napoleão, Cinderela, Dom Quixote, Adão) demonstra que especificam o conhecimento (tematizado) culturalmente significativo e implícito, partilhado por comunicadores. Estudos das estruturas binárias (designador/designatum) de um conceito determinam a dinâmica de desenvolvimento do significado do nome precedente, as mudanças reais na estrutura dos componentes centrais de significado, dessemantização de nome precedente. Interpretações diferentes em russo e espanhol mostram que o conteúdo significativo varia e o significado linguístico do invariante de nomes precedentes universais reflete não a realidade como tal, mas as estruturas cognitivas da personalidade linguística de uma sociedade específica.


PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Fenômenos precedentes. Linguagem midiática. Nomes precedentes universais. Conhecimento tematizado. Estruturas cognitivas de personalidade linguística.


RESUMEN: El presente estudio es importante porque los fenómenos precedentes, que transmiten valores culturales tanto tradicionales como de nueva creación, están más representados en el lenguaje de los medios de comunicación. El artículo sugiere un enfoque cognitivo destinado a identificar el papel del conocimiento (lingüístico, no lingüístico, individual) en la formación del significado de la unidad precedente, siendo el objeto principal de investigación en la ciencia cognitiva. Los ejemplos de nombres precedentes universales (Napoleón, Cenicienta, Don Quijote, Adán) sugieren que almacenan un conocimiento culturalmente valorado (tematizado) e implícito compartido por los comunicantes. El estudio de las estructuras binarias (designador/designatum) de un concepto define la dinámica de


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1 Universidade Estadual de Linguística de Moscow (MSLU), Moscou – Rússia. Professora Associada e Chefe do Departamento de Linguística e Comunicação Profissional na Área do Direito. E-mail: liliamoiseenko@gmail.com

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2 Universidade da Amizade dos Povos da Rússia (RUDN), Moscou – Rússia. Professora do Departamento de Teoria e Prática de Línguas Estrangeiras. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0764-2271. E-mail: mikheevarudn@mail.ru


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desarrollo del significado del nombre precedente, los cambios relevantes en la estructura de los componentes centrales del significado, la desemantización del nombre precedente. Las diferentes interpretaciones rusas y españolas muestran que el contenido predominante varía, y el significado lingüístico de una invariante de los nombres precedentes universales no refleja la realidad como tal, sino las estructuras cognitivas de una identidad lingüística de una sociedad concreta.


PALABRAS CLAVE: Fenómenos determinantes. Lenguaje de medios de difusión. Nombres determinates universales. Conocimientos tematizados. Estructuras cognitivas de identidad identidad lingüística


ABSTRACT: The present study is important since precedent phenomena, transmitting both traditional and newly created cultural values, are more widely represented in the mass media language. The paper suggests a cognitive approach aimed at identifying the role of knowledge (linguistic, non-linguistic, individual) in forming the precedent unit meaning, being the primary object of research in cognitive science. Examples of universal precedent names (Napoleon, Cinderella, Don Quixote, Adam) suggest that they store culturally valued (thematized) and implicit knowledge shared by communicants. Studying the binary structures (designator/designatum) of a concept defines the development dynamics of the precedent name’s meaning, relevant changes in structure of the core components of meaning, desemantization of the precedent name. Different Russian and Spanish interpretations show that prevailing content varies, and the language meaning of an invariant of universal precedent names reflects not the reality as such but the cognitive structures of a linguistic identity of a particular society.


KEYWORDS: Precedent phenomena. Mass media language. Universal precedent-related names. Thematized knowledge. Cognitive structures of a linguistic identity.


Introdução


A relevância do estudo reside no interesse científico pelo fenômeno da precedência que ocupa um lugar essencial no paradigma discursivo das línguas russa e espanhola. O papel dos fenômenos precedentes na organização do espaço da mídia e seu funcionamento no texto midiático (caracterizado pela máxima intertextualidade) é estudado no material russo e espanhol.

O estudo tem como objetivo analisar a atualização da categoria precedente no texto midiático. Para atingir esse objetivo, os autores definiram as seguintes tarefas:


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Tipologia de fenômenos precedentes


Os fenômenos precedentes (doravante FP), sendo um componente vital de qualquer cultura nacional, são amplamente representados na linguagem dos meios de comunicação de massa - o ambiente de comunicação mais importante da sociedade moderna. Hoje, a mídia de massa oferece uma certa imagem em que o mundo não é refletido, mas interpretado. Assim, fenômenos precedentes/unidades precedentes (doravante UP) ocupam um lugar especial na realidade da mídia como um produto da atividade de informação da mídia de massa e transmitem valores culturais tradicionais e recém-criados.

Inicialmente, na linguística russa, Karaulov (1987) introduziu um conceito de texto precedente (doravante TP) que foi definido como um texto 1) armazenado na mente de um falante nativo de uma comunidade linguística particular; 2) representando um fato cultural significativo para uma identidade linguística; 3) repetidamente atualizado no discurso de uma identidade linguística (KARAULOV, 2010).

A TP implicava atribuição apenas a textos literários; posteriormente, surge uma definição mais detalhada - os FP da cultura nacional e mundial são conhecidos por todos os falantes nativos, armazenados em suas mentes e repetidos no discurso cotidiano. A questão da demarcação do espaço (coberta pela categoria de precedência) permanece aberta à discussão. Normalmente, inclui nomes de obras de ficção, de autores e personagens literários, de filmes, programas populares de rádio e televisão, citações, palavras aladas ou aforismos, ou seja, qualquer tipo de "palavra estrangeira".

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A tipologia do FP é o assunto mais desenvolvido na teoria da precedência. Os principais critérios de classificação do FP permitem distribuí-los em vários níveis: precedente automático, precedente social, precedente nacional e precedente universal, e pelos seguintes tipos: texto precedente, declaração precedente, situação precedente, nome precedente. A classificação tradicional de FP com base em sua identidade aspectual foi sugerida por Gudkov (2000; 2003) e Krasnykh (2002); eles distinguem quatro tipos de FP dependendo do que é mencionado - uma


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frase de uma obra literária, história ou política; uma data, um local de evento ou uma personalidade-chave.


  1. Texto precedente

    Obras como Dom Quixote (El ingenioso hidalgo Dom Quijote de la Mancha) de M. Cervantes, The Scoffer of Seville (El Burlador de Sevilla) de Tirso de Molina, Celestina (La Celestina) de Fernando de Rojas, os contos de fadas As Mil e Uma Noites etc. podem, sem dúvida, servir como exemplos de TP para a identidade linguística espanhola.


  2. Declaração Precedente (doravante DP)

    Normalmente, é uma frase de uma obra literária ou de uma declaração de um político ou de uma pessoa histórica, por exemplo, Este señor posee un '!Ábrete, Sésamo!' (IRIBARREN, 1996, p. 636) - 'Este senhor tem uma palavra magico'. É sobre o feitiço ‘Abra-te, Sésamo!’ Mencionado nos contos de fadas Mil e Uma Noites; esta fórmula mágica permite que os ladrões penetrem na caverna onde armazenam seus tesouros. Compare em russo:

    ‘Abra-te, Sésamo!’ (cabeçalho)

    Especialistas acreditam que em breve não haverá necessidade de ocultar equipamentos em móveis, paredes e tetos: todos os sistemas serão controlados por PC, todas as telas serão ocultadas e disponíveis apenas a pedido do proprietário (KUDASHKINA, 2004).


  3. Situação precedente (doravante SP) é uma situação de referência com um conjunto particular de características diferenciais, por exemplo, o beijo de Judas que é entendido como um ato padrão de traição.

    O exemplo a seguir critica o governo espanhol que continua a organizar congressos caros e inúteis sob sua presidência da UE em condições de crise econômica.

    El único culpable de la lamentable situación en que se encuentra la economía española es un presidente que empezó negando la crisis, pasó a asegurar que no afectaría a España, y organiza, de Cádiz a San Sebastián, congresos tan caros como inútiles, para celebrar su fugaz presidencia de Europa. La banda del Titanic, interpretando valses, mientras el transatlántico se hundía, no lo hizo mejor (CARASCAL, 2010). A situação pode ser comparada apenas com a orquestra do Titanic, que toca valsas enquanto o navio afunda.

    No exemplo a seguir, o SP está associado ao nome do poeta espanhol Federico García

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    Lorca.


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    Estábamos probando el elevalunas ante una señal de prohibido aparcar cuando nos cortó el rollo una pareja de la Benemérita. Mi amigo es andaluz y, en presencia del cuerpo, no puede evitar pensar en Federico.

    - Ficamos sob a placa de "Proibido estacionar" quando um par de policiais apareceu de repente diante de nós (literalmente, um casal de homenageados; la Benemérita em espanhol é relativo à Guarda Civil). Meu amigo é da Andaluzia e, ao avistar os policiais, imediatamente tem a imagem de Federico.

    O fragmento ‘Andaluzia - um par de policiais - Federico’ cria uma situação precedente de Federico García Lorca executado por policiais a caminho de Granada durante a Guerra Civil Espanhola.

    O seguinte relacionado com a conquista do México pode ser considerado como uma SP

  4. Nome precedente (doravante NP)

Os autores do artigo ‘Civilización y cultura. La cognitiva de una cultura tradicional' lista os seguintes personagens culturais significativos para a sociedade espanhola: el Quijote, Sancho Panza, el Cid3, Don Juan, los Reyes Católicos, el maestro Ciruela4, Boabdil5, el Ratoncito Pérez, Mariquita Pérez6, la bruja Piruja, Caperucita Roja, Cristóbal Colón, el capitán Trueno7, el Empecinado (VYSHNYA; MUÑOZ, 2007). Os populares heróis dos quadrinhos Superlópez (a paródia de Superman), Mortadelo e Filemón também podem ser adicionados aqui.



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3 Cid - cavaleiro castelhano Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (1026-1099), conhecido por seus feitos de armas durante a Reconquista, apelidado de ‘Campeador (Guerreiro)’ pelos cristãos (VOLKOVA; DEMENTIEV, 2006).

4 Personagem do livro infantil de F. Almen, a professora Ciruela está estranhamente vestida, mas usa uma pedagogia revolucionária nas aulas (menos enfadonha, mais prática) e se parece mais com um amigo ou uma figura paterna. Atualmente, a seguinte expressão pode ser encontrada na América Latina: decimos que alguien es un 'maestro ciruela' cuando se empeña en dar a todos lecciones sobre asuntos que conoce poco y mal (O professor de Ciruela é aquele que ensina o que não entende)

5 Boabdil é o último emir mouro de Granada, expulso à força após a conquista espanhola (1942). Segundo a lenda, quando viu Granada pela última vez da colina, Boabdil chorou, pelo que recebeu uma amarga reprovação de sua mãe: Lloras como mujer lo que no supiste defensor como hombre (Você chora como uma mulher que não poderia proteger como um homem). Desde então, a colina ao sul de Granada é chamada de Suspiro del Moro - Moor's Grief (VOLKOVA; DEMENTIEV, 2006).

6 Mariquita Pérez - famosa boneca dos anos quarenta do século XX na Espanha, vendida com conjuntos de roupas (o protótipo da Barbie moderna). Devido ao alto preço (95 pesetas), apenas crianças de famílias ricas podiam pagar (VOLKOVA; DEMENTIEV, 2006).

7 El capitán Trueno (Capitão Trovão) - um herói destemido de uma série de quadrinhos populares desenhados à mão na Espanha nos anos 50-60 do século XX (VOLKOVA; DEMENTIEV, 2006).


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Precedência e interdiscursividade


A interação entre diferentes códigos culturais que também podem criar precedência pode ser ilustrada pelos exemplos das revistas eletrônicas ‘Utro’ e ‘Kommersant’. A Figura 1 fornece informações sobre a restauração de um famoso monumento:


Figura 1 – I. Shadr ‘Pedra de pavimento como arma do proletariado’, Moscou, 1927


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Fonte: Acervo das autoras


  1. O governo da cidade de Moscou alocou 5 milhões de rublos para a restauração de ‘Pedra de pavimento como uma arma do proletariado’, um dos monumentos mais famosos de Ivan Shadr, erguido no Posto Avançado de Krasnopresnenskaya. A escultura retrata um trabalhador brandindo uma pedra em uma pose agressivamente tensa. O monumento, criado em 1927, tornou-se um símbolo do jovem estado (VIKSTREM, 2011).

    As mensagens (2) e (3) são, na verdade, interdiscursivas, uma vez que a semiótica de um discurso é inserida no arcabouço do outro, o que cria novos significados a partir da precedência.

  2. O azulejo Sobyaninskij é pintado em concreto

    Operários habilidosos fizeram calçadas de concreto no centro de Moscou e as revestiram com uma espátula, criando um falso padrão de ladrilhos decorativos. Os blogueiros sugeriram que esses "blocos" particularmente inovadores não poderiam ser roubados para serem usados como armas do proletariado (OSADCHAYA, 2011).

  3. Informações do blog do "eremita"

Tudo vai ficar bem! Do contrário, a pedra de pavimento é uma arma do proletariado!

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Na verdade, FP foram destaque na linguística russa e estrangeira, e diversos estudos foram dedicados a eles (AGUIRRE, 2001; DENISOVA, 2003; FATEEVA, 2000; GUDKOV


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et al., 1997; GUDKOV, 2000; KOSTOMAROV; BURVIKOVA, 1996; KRASNYKH, 2003;

KUSHNERUK, 2006; KUZMINA, 2011; LUQUE, 2009; MARTÍNEZ, 2006; NAKHIMOVA,

2011; OLIZKO, 2009; RODRÍGUEZ; MORA, 2002; ROJO, 2008; SÁNCHEZ, 2009;

SLYSHKIN, 2000; VOROZHTSOVA, 2007; VYSHNYA; MUÑOZ, 2007) .

As teorias linguísticas de precedência e intertextualidade descrevem amplamente o FP; pesquisadores os estudam no contexto de metaforização e funcionamento em vários discursos e os consideram dentro de disciplinas como linguística cultural e comunicação intercultural.

É geralmente aceito que qualquer FP consiste em estruturas cognitivas linguísticas (formando a base para a competência linguística) e fenomenológicas (conhecimento e ideias sobre fenômenos extralinguísticos) (KARAULOV, 2004) e requer uma compreensão tridimensional - linguagem, consciência e cultura.

No presente estudo, a precedência é entendida como uma categoria cognitiva transpessoal que reflete a presciência na atualização discursiva quando correlacionada com a situação comunicativa e as intenções de uma identidade linguística.

Os FP são recentemente considerados em termos cognitivos mais amplos, o que permite estender as abordagens existentes. A abordagem cognitiva sugerida está associada à identificação do papel do conhecimento (linguístico, não linguístico, individual) na formação do significado da UP; tais significados são o principal objeto de pesquisa em ciências cognitivas.


Materiais e métodos


As bases metodológicas do estudo foram: o conceito de identidade linguística (KARAULOV, 1987); pesquisas no campo da consciência da linguagem (SOROKIN, 1998; TARASOV, 2004; UFIMTSEVA, 2005); a teoria da precedência (KARAULOV, 1987; GUDKOV, 2000; 2003; GRISHAEVA, 2004; KRASNYKH, 2001; 2002; 2003; SLYSHKIN,

2000); teorias da intertextualidade (BAKHTIN, 1975; DENISOVA, 2003; ILYIN, 1996;

KUZMINA, 2011; FATEEVA, 2000; CHERNYAVSKAYA, 2009; BARTHES, 1970;

KRISTEVA, 1974; PIÉGAY-GROS, 1996); teoria cognitiva (BOLDYREV, 2001;

DEMYANKOV, 2005; IRISKHANOVA, 2001; KIBRIK, 1994; KUBRYAKOVA, 2004;

POPOVA; STERNIN, 2010; LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 2003; TURNER, 1994; FILLMORE, 1976; FAUCONNIER, 1994); a teoria do discurso (ARUTIUNOVA, 1990; BORBOTKO,

2011; KARASIK, 2002; MAKAROV, 2003; STEPANOV, 2004; VAN DIJK, 2011; SÉRIOT;

TABOURET, 2004); pesquisa no campo do discurso da mídia de massa


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(DOBROSKLONSKAYA, 2008; KOBOZEVA, 2001; SMETANINA, 2002;

CHERNYSHOVA, 2014); estudos transculturais e pesquisas no campo da linguoculturologia (WIERZBICKA, 1997; VOROB'EV, 2008, GUREVICH, 2017; LOTMAN, 2004,

MASLOVA, 2011; etc.).

Os seguintes métodos foram usados para estudar o FP:


  1. análise semântica de componentes de uma série de FP (nomes precedentes) com base em dados de fontes lexicográficas;

  2. análise do discurso de fenômenos precedentes levando em consideração a mensuração extralinguística da interação da fala (pontos de vista, valores e atitudes dos destinatários), etc.;

  3. metodologia de modelagem linguocognitiva (modelagem da estrutura de significado do UP, modelagem da formação de significado).


O pressuposto de trabalho deste estudo é que as estruturas cognitivas, cruciais para a atualização no texto da mídia e correlacionadas com o conhecimento prévio, são a base de fenômenos precedentes. As estruturas cognitivas garantem que os comunicantes estejam familiarizados com os significados cognitivos e contribuam para a compreensão e interpretação dos fenômenos precedentes. O conhecimento tematizado (compartilhado) e o mecanismo cognitivo de tematização do espaço comunicativo em detrimento de unidades precedentes permitem a implementação de várias estratégias discursivas.

O material do estudo foi um corpus de FP amplamente representado em textos da mídia espanhola. A análise primária foi baseada na mídia impressa e eletrônica publicada de 2001 a 2014. A análise contrastiva e a confirmação dos padrões universais da atualização da categoria de precedência foram baseadas nos exemplos da mídia de massa russa - jornais ‘Vedomosti’; ‘Zavtra’, ‘Izvestia’; ‘Kommersant’; ‘Komsomolskaya Pravda’; ‘Moskovsky Komsomolets’; ‘RBK Daily’; ‘Russkaya Gazeta’ e ‘Utro’, bem como da ficção, da Bíblia e de fontes da Internet em espanhol e russo.

O trabalho incluiu as seguintes etapas:



Typology of precedent phenomena


The precedent phenomena (hereinafter PP), being a vital component of any national culture, are most widely represented in the language of mass media – the most important communication environment of modern society. Today, mass media offer a certain picture where the world is not reflected but interpreted. Thus, precedent phenomena/precedent units (hereinafter PU) occupy a special place in the media reality as a product of mass media information activity and transmit both traditional and newly created cultural values.

Initially, in the Russian linguistics, Karaulov (1987) introduced a concept of precedent text (hereinafter PT) which was defined as a text 1) stored in the mind of a native speaker of a particular language community; 2) representing a cultural fact significant for a linguistic identity; 3) repeatedly updated in the discourse of a linguistic identity (KARAULOV, 2010).

A PT implied attribution only to literary texts; later, a more detailed definition appears


A wide selection of the studied Spanish and Russian language facts (more than 3000 PU) proves the authenticity and substantiation of the obtained results.


Results


Interference processes in the field of precedence


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In the works of Russian linguists, the sources of precedent units that function in different types of discourse are compared. Specialists in Russian culture describe different types of communication as literary centrism, a constant reference to literary texts (KONDAKOV, 2005).


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According to Denisova (2003), linguistic and cultural behavior of Russians at the current stage is characterized by a passion for citing, the principle of dialogueness, and extra attention to the language game.

Vorozhtsova (2007), who studied precedent phenomena in the Russian and American presidential election discourse, notes that literature was most popular in the discussion of the Russian presidential elections, and politics in the American presidential elections; it confirms the thesis about literary centrism of the Russian nation.

Kushneruk (2006), who studies appeals to precedent names in Russian and US advertisements (KUSHNERUK, 2006), also notes literary centrism of Russian advertising, while American ads are characterized by cinema centrism. According to Kushneruk, in Russian advertising (in contrast to American) universal-precedent names are widely used, which indicates a higher degree of permeability of Russian culture, as do numerous PU from Spanish and Latin American literature, for instance:

Probably, the most remarkable thing in life of the late Leonid Ilyich was his long departure – a chronicle of death, announced many times, like Márquez's8. He was buried many times, but still, Brezhnev's death became both unanticipated and expected end of the entire era (CHUZHAKIN, 2004).

The film by Spanish director P. Almodóvar (born 1949) Mujeres al borde de un ataque de nervios (1988) (Women on the verge of a nervous breakdown) might have served as the basis for the title of the book by M. A. Krongauz ‘Russian language on the verge of a nervous breakdown’ (KRONGAUZ, 2008).

An allusion to the famous song of the 1990s – Honduras, Honduras, where is your working class? – acts as a PT among the members on an Internet forum.

A new variety of Belarusian selection pears Simply, Maria is based on a PT – the Mexican novel ‘Simplemente María’9.

Researchers (SMETANINA, 2002) note that in the modern mass media discourse which demonstrates the signs of postmodernism and is characterized by a mixture of documental and literary discourses, the factual side is reduced and is included in the conditional context which turns out to be much more interesting than the information itself.


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8 Crónica de una muerte anunciada (1981) (Chronicle of the Declared Death) – a story of Colombian writer Gabriel Garcia Márquez (1927–2014).

9 Simply Maria was the third soap opera (after the Brazilian The Slave Izaura and the Mexican The Rich also Cry) shown in Russia (premiered on March 9, 1993 at the State TV and Radio Company ‘Ostankino’). Compare the underlying precedent of The Rich also Cry in the following headline: The rich also pay. Russia wants to introduce a progressive scale of income tax (Bfm.ru, 2015).


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Playing with PT is a favorite game of journalists; according to Elistratov (2000), constant play with quotes led to modern Russian journalism being, in fact, a precedent.

Inability to work with PT is qualified as low speech culture (KOSTOMAROV; BURVIKOVA, 1996). Possible failures in communication caused by not knowing the PT are commented upon in ‘Semantic dictionary’ by Bochkarev (2003) regarding an actual situation in public transport in Russia:



In denotative meaning, PN point directly to denotation, that is, the PN ‘Napoleon’ implies exactly the Emperor. With connotative use, we expect not Napoleon himself (who only acts as a reference for comparison) but some other person who in some ways resembles the emperor.

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From all the meaning presented (and implied) in the concept ‘Napoleon’ only one, namely, the claim to world domination, generates an additional content in the Russian and


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Spanish cultures. Let us compare the phrase ‘Napoleon's plans’ and the example from the newspaper ‘El País’:

Aznar, cuando habla en tejano, está convencido de que es Bush, lo que, desde el punto de vista clínico, es tan grave como creerse Napoleón. Dios nos asista (MILLAS, 2003) – Asnar, when speaking in Texano, is convinced that he is Bush, which from a clinical point of view is as difficult as imagining himself Napoleon.

However, the Spanish classical literature stores other metaphors in respect of PN ‘Napoleon’. Thus, P. A. de Alarcon (1833–1891) wrote:

…aquella noche dormímos como Napoleón después de la batalla de Austerlitz (Alpujarra). That night we slept like Napoleon after the battle of Austerlitz.

In linguistic consciousness of a Spanish speaker, there is a whole frame associated with Napoleon's name and with his victories and defeats, which allows adequately interpreting the comparison proposed by P.A. Alarcon – ‘‘That night we slept soundly’’.

In the linguistic consciousness of a native Russian, the frame associated with the name ‘Napoleon’ contains information about the retreat of Napoleon's troops due to the Russian frost: We went to the confectionery ‘Jean’. Mom ordered coffee with Napoleon cakes...

Opposite, an incredibly unemotional gentleman in a uniform cap was sitting straight I looked

at him and Napoleon got stuck in my throat as in the snows of Russia (KASSIL, 2016).

In addition to the Russian frost, in the Russian language consciousness Napoleon is associated with a cake (millefeuilles in France).

We will bake the Napoleon cake from the readymade puff pastry, yet we’ll take the time to make the cream ourselves (MOLL4ALL.RU, 2017).

Panarina (2017), who investigated nuclear (non-peripheral) components of the meaning of the ‘Napoleon’ concept through an associative experiment among Russian respondents, notes that in most cases, Napoleon correlates with the cake concept (22%), and the idea of war (14%) follows.

The frame associated with the name of Napoleon will have other meaning for a native French speaker. As an illustration of the different ideas, V.V. Krasnykh gives the following example: ‘‘A Russian, calling someone Napoleon, characterizes them as a person with great ambitions [ ], for the French the name of Napoleon is associated, before all, with victorie in

the love department’’ (KRASNYKH, 2001, p. 167; 2003, p. 178).

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Let us regard the lexical meaning dynamics of PN ‘Napoleon’ (change of the actual concept layer in terms of cognitive science). In the Russian culture, the name of Napoleon was


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once a curse, for example: ‘‘Uh, barbarian! You, damned Bonaparte!’’ – Selifan, Chichikov’s coachman, scolded the horse this way (GOGOL, 2016).

One reason for failures in intercultural communication is that different ideas are hidden behind the same name present in different cultures. Thus, for a bearer of the Russian culture, Napoleon in the battle of Borodino is defeated, and for the French he is a winner (as evidenced by the exhibition in the museum ‘Hôtel des Invalides’ in Paris).

In the national cultural precedent fields of the Russian linguistic identity and the Spanish linguistic identity, it is also possible to single out such universally precedent names as Cenicienta (Cinderella) in relation to a poor unfortunate girl forced to do all the difficult housework.

In August 2014, it is better for a Libra to imagine themselves as devices made of iron and cast iron; otherwise, they cannot withstand the pressures at work. Horoscope advises to keep fastidiousness for other months, and this month roll up your sleeves and get into the role of Cinderella (GOROSKOP, 2014).

El país va para abajo. En Asia Oriental, donde todos suben, Filipinas es la Cenicienta (POCH, 2006).

In this example, the Philippines are called Cinderella – unlike other countries of Southeast Asia, it is in rather a sad state.

The Cinderella Law (Ley Cenicienta) (LANACION.COM, 2014) means the new law of the British government, which prescribes punishment for child abuse. As a result of ‘emotional cruelty towards children’, parents can be given up to 10 years in prison.

Answering the question what prevents a woman from being successful, the American psychotherapist Colette Dowling points to the fear of women being independent and calls it the Cinderella complex (DOWLING, 1981), which is expressed in the woman's unconscious desire to be protected by someone. Like Cinderella, modern women are waiting for a prince who will change their life.

In the Russian language, the lexeme Cinderella is also used in the sense of ‘a simple girl who has gained access to the high society, sudden recognition and success’, for example:

The crown of ‘Miss World’ was often won not by professional models but by common girls... These cinderellas decided to try their luck in a beauty contest without having model skills.

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After three years as a waitress in a backwoods bar, Cinderella won her first teen beauty contest – it was the first call to change her life dramatically.


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Zavyalova (2007), who studied the functioning of the precedent name Cinderella in different cultures, notes that for the American and Spanish respondents the fairy tale ‘Cinderella’ is a combination of myth and reality, for the Hungarian respondents it is only a childhood memory that will never become reality, and only in the Russian linguistic and cultural community the fairy tale is perceived as a story that can happen to anyone. For example:

The story of the actress and model Olga Kurylenko is another fairy tale about Cinderella turned into reality. A simple girl from the city of Berdyansk became a citizen of France, ‘Bond’s girl’ and Tom Cruise's partner in the film ‘Oblivion’ (SMIRNOVA, 2013).

As can be easily seen, the same character gets a different interpretation in different languages and cultures.

Foreign cultural names in the Russian discourse are mostly (64%) associated with a positive assessment – Einstein, Harry Potter, James Bond, Bill Gates, Robin Hood, Don Quixote, Alain Delon and others (ZHANAEVA, 2008).

Let us consider the universal precedent name ‘Don Quixote’ in this context. Don Quixote is identified with such concepts as a national symbol, literary myth and the Spanish spirit. However, social assessment of Don Quixote's image may be different, for example:

El presidente iraní… acertó al rechazar las utopías de los Quijotes modernos, pues él ha vivido en su propio país uno de los ejemplos más extremos de utopismo revolucionario (ELPAIS.COM, 2002) – The president of Iran hit the target, rejecting utopian views of modern Don Quixotes.

Here the PN ‘Don Quixote’ sounds like a symbol of utopia, as opposed to, for example, the Russian literary tradition where the image of Don Quixote symbolizes a romantic and an adventurer (STEIN, 2001). In the Russian culture, the name ‘Don Quixote’ turned into a concept name (the term of Likhachev (2014)), i.e., a name that reflects (like Khlestakov, Oblomov, Plyushkin, etc.) the specific national and cultural nature of the Russian character and mentality. As Turgenev (1980) wrote, ‘‘When Don Quixotes disappears, let the history book be closed. There will be nothing to read in it’’.

Moliner (1998) gives the following characteristics to a person to whom the name ‘Don Quixote’ can be applied: persona que está siempre dispuesta a intervenir en los asuntos que no le atañen, endefensa de la justicia – a person who, in defense of justice, is always ready to intervene in matters that do not concern him/her.

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In the Russian culture, the image of Don Quixote is positively marked, in contrast to the native Spanish culture, where it can even be used with a hint of contempt: Generalmente, no se emplea con sentidoadmirativo, y puede tenerlo despectivo (MOLINER, 1998).

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In Spain, the name of Don Quixote had many interpretations for more than four centuries, since the publication of the work by M. Cervantes. For example, in 1905, when the 300th anniversary of the novel was celebrated, a real battle unfolded in Catalonia – Catalonian nationalists believed that there was nothing to celebrate, and Don Quixote was perceived as a symbol of the most conservative Spanish nationalism, the Catalans laughed at his follies and mocked his exploits (SAVATER; RIERA, 2004). Nevertheless, Don Quixote continues to be not only a national hero but also a Spanish national brand.

At the heart of the universal PN ‘Don Quixote’ lie various differential signs in different languages. Yu.A. Rylov, who experimented with Russian, Spanish and Italian students who had to interpret the phrase ‘behaves like Don Quixote’, makes a conclusion about heterogeneity of the concept ‘Don Quixote’ in different cultures (RYLOV, 2004). It destroys some stereotypes about the international character of universally-precedent names: the same precedent name in one language may have a broader range of connotations than the other or even be lacking. The sphere of using PN ‘Don Quixote’ distinguishing nationally determined differential characteristics is given in Table 1.


Table1 – Cognitive-semiotic PN model El Quijote / Donchisciotte / Дон Кихот


Designator

Designatum

Spanish

El Quijote

always ready to make a stand for justice; intervenes where he does not belong; acts foolishly

Italian

Donchisciotte

romantic, idealistic but with elements of stubbornness and perseverance

Russian

Don Quixote

behaves nobly, unselfishly; idealist, unsophisticated dreamer, adventurer

Source: Prepared by the authors


The axiological characteristics of the universal precedent name are a special matter – a PN must meet aesthetic and moral needs of the host culture. In the Russian picture of the world, there has always been a desire for an ideal, for nobleness. Therefore, the PN ‘Don Quixote’ correlates in Russian with the cognitive concept of a noble and unselfish person.

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Cases when the same PN is stored in cultures but has different meanings (one designator for different designate) are usually qualified as factors that can cause deviances in intercultural communication, for example, the biblical name ‘Adam’.


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Table 2 – Cognitive-semiotic model of PN adán / Adam


Spanish

Russian

Designator

Designatum

Designator

Designatum

adán

dirty, ragged man

Adam

as old as Adam naked as Adam

Source: Prepared by the authors


The case where different PN have the same meaning in cultures (one designatum has different designators) can be illustrated as follows:


Table 3. Cognitive-semiotic PN model ‘unwillingness to do anything’


Language

Designatum

Designator (PN)

Spanish

refusal to do anything:

¡Que lo haga San Pedro! (No lo voy a hacer yo)

– lit. Let Saint Peter do it

San Pedro – St. Peter


Russian

unwillingness to do anything: And who will wash the dishes?

Pushkin?

And who will take the chairs back to the places?

Pushkin?


Pushkin

Source: Prepared by the authors


‘Dictionary of Russian argot’ which describes the vocabulary of a limited sphere of usage, describes the lexical unit ‘Pushkin’ as a common noun. In the foreword to the ‘Dictionary’, the author emphasizes: “The name of any person can be an object of jargon travesty – from Pushkin and the Pope to Gorbachev and Yeltsin" (ELISTRATOV, 2000, p. 8). In particular, the entry ‘Pushkin’ in the Dictionary is as follows.


Pushkin, -s somebody unknown; only God knows who it is. Who will pay, Pushkin?

Tales of Pushkin (humorously) – a lie, deceit, fabrications.


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Both in Russian and Spanish, the novel by the French writer F. Rabelais “A Tale of the Preuspicious Life of the Great Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel” (RABELAIS, 2016) is used as a precedent text. The character Pantagruel, the son of Gargantua, had intemperance in


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everything, was a merry fellow and a hearty eater. In the prologue to his work, F. Rabelais defines the adjective pantagruélico as one referring to liveliness of spirit, which characterizes a contempt for hardships of fate. Adjective pantagruélico has currently been used in Spanish only in relation to a hearty meal. For example:

…un banquete pantagruélico, comida pantagruélica (GARCÍA, 2001) – plentiful food, as for Pantagruel, tables groaned with food at the banquet.

In the Russian language, precedent units of the novel refer both to abundant food (café- restaurant ‘Gargantua’, restaurant ‘Pantagruel’, osteria ‘Pantagruel’ in Kiev) and to intemperance, insatiability.


Café-restaurant ‘Gargantua’

There is a Rabelaisian spirit in here. Happy hunting ground for slaves of stomach!

Portions are large and tasty, the atmosphere relaxed (peterout.ru); Gerard the Rabelaisian


Gerard Depardieu was noted in the Kazakh film ‘Unexpected Love’ by Sabit Kurmanbekov and tried on an unkempt beard of Grishka Rasputin in the French television series that is being shot right now in Russia – an immoderate, irrepressible and insatiable film- Gargantua (EGGS.COM.UA, 2011).


Discussion


The typology of PP identified by the example of Spanish linguoculture reflects the typology developed for the Russian linguistic identity (GUDKOV, 2000; 2003; KRASNYKH, 2002). Interdiscursive precedent here is new; it is understood as an interaction among cultural codes of different types, when semiotics of one discourse is placed in the framework of another, which creates new meanings based on precedence.

PN was specified as a type of PP, which is most common in terms of their universal use. At the same time, the Russian culture is characterized by a higher degree of permeability as to the use of universal PN in comparison with the Spanish culture.

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Cognitive perspective applied to universal-precedent names allowed considering them as the concepts that generate additional content; this additional content is found out using phenomenological cognitive structures (knowledge of extra-linguistic nature) (KARAULOV, 2004).


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The use of universal PN (Napoleon, Cinderella, Don Quixote, Adam) as examples revealed that they store culturally relevant knowledge shared by communicants (thematized), which usually functions in implicit form. One name is found in different cultures may mask different ideas due to the differential and axiological characteristics that form its basis. It destroys some sort of stereotypes about an international nature of universal PN.


Conclusions


Cognitive perspective of the study allowed considering such relevant problems of linguistics as: relationship between cognition and understanding, secondary semiosis, semantic diffusivity, blurred boundaries of meaning, dependence of lexeme on context and on the interpreter's apperception, mechanism of constructing meanings, etc.

Thus, the study of the concept’s binary structures (designator / designatum) proves that formation of lexical meaning of a PN and, in particular, of a universally precedent name, occurs with the help of specifically structured knowledge based on cognitive structures of knowledge representation that go beyond the linguistic framework structure towards a field of extra- linguistic, linguistic-cultural codes.

Differences in invariant perception and interpretation of universal PN in Russian and Spanish show that the linguistic structures of these names reflect not the reality as such but the cognitive structures of a linguistic identity of a particular society.

Shared (thematized) knowledge that involves precedent units as its carriers, has a great potential for creating a wide range of communicative meanings and implementing specific communicative goals.


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The publication has been prepared with the support of the RUDN University Program 5-100


Abbreviations


PN – precedent names

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PP – precedent phenomena PS – Precedent Situation PSt – Precedent Statement PT – precedent text


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PU – precedent units


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How to reference this article


MOISEENKO, L. V; MIKHEEVA, N. F. Precedent phenomena of the contemporary russian and spanish mass media as cognitive structures of a linguistic identity. Rev. EntreLínguas, Araraquara, v. 7, n. esp. 2, e021028, 2021. e-ISSN: 2447-3529. DOI:

https://doi.org/10.29051/el.v7iesp.2.15154


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Submitted: 05/01/2021 Required revisions: 26/02/2021 Approved: 24/03/2021 Published: 01/06/2021


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