PRECEDENT PHENOMENA OF THE CONTEMPORARY RUSSIAN AND SPANISH

MASS MEDIA AS COGNITIVE STRUCTURES OF A LINGUISTIC IDENTITY

OS FENÔMENOS PRECEDENTES DE MEIOS DE COMUNICAÇÃO

CONTEMPORÂNEOS DA RÚSSIA E ESPANHA COMO ESTRUTURAS COGNITIVAS

DE UMA IDENTIDADE LINGUÍSTICA

FENOMENOS DETERMINANTES DE MEDIOS ESPAÑOLES Y RUSOS DE

DIFUSION COMO ESTRUCTURAS COGNITIVAS DE IDENTIDAD LINGÜISTICA

Lilia V. MOISEENKO

Natalia F. MIKHEEVA

ABSTRACT: The present study is important since precedent phenomena, transmitting both

traditional and newly created cultural values, are more widely represented in the mass media

language. The paper suggests a cognitive approach aimed at identifying the role of knowledge

(linguistic, non-linguistic, individual) in forming the precedent unit meaning, being the primary

object of research in cognitive science. Examples of universal precedent names (Napoleon,

Cinderella, Don Quixote, Adam) suggest that they store culturally valued (thematized) and

implicit knowledge shared by communicants. Studying the binary structures

(designator/designatum) of a concept defines the development dynamics of the precedent

name’s meaning, relevant changes in structure of the core components of meaning,

desemantization of the precedent name. Different Russian and Spanish interpretations show

that prevailing content varies, and the language meaning of invariant of universal precedent

names reflects not the reality as such but the cognitive structures of a linguistic identity of a

particular society.

KEYWORDS: Precedent phenomena. Mass media language. Universal precedent-related

names. Thematized knowledge. Cognitive structures of a linguistic identity.

RESUMO: O estudo é importante pois os fenômenos precedentes, que transmitem tanto os

valores culturais tradicionais como os recém-criados, estão mais representados na linguagem

midiática. Uma abordagem cognitiva, proposta no artigo, destina-se a identificar o papel do

conhecimento (linguístico, não-linguístico, individual) na formação do significado de uma

unidade precedente, que é um objeto principal dos estudos em Ciência Cognitiva. O exemplo

de nomes precedentes universais (Napoleão, Cinderela, Dom Quixote, Adão) demonstra que

especificam conhecimento (tematizado) culturalmente significativo e implícito, partilhado por

comunicadores. Estudos das estruturas binárias (designador/designatum) de um conceito

determinam a dinâmica de desenvolvimento do significado de nome precedente, as mudanças

Moscow State Linguistic University, Moscow – Russian Federation. Associate Professor. Head of the

Department of Linguistics and Professional Communication in the Field of Law. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-

0001-7703-2965. E-mail: liliamoiseenko@gmail.com.

Institute of Foreign Languages of RUDN University (Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia), Moscow –

Russian Federation. Professor of the Department of Theory and Practice of Foreign Languages. ORCID:

http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0764-2271. E-mail: mikheeva_rudn@mail.ru

reais na estrutura dos componentes centrais de significado, dessemantização de nome

precedente. Interpretações diferentes em russo e espanhol mostram que o conteúdo

significativo varia e o significado linguístico do invariante de nomes precedentes universais

reflete não a realidade como tal, mas as estruturas cognitivas da personalidade linguística

duma sociedade específica.

PALAVRAS-CHAVE: Fenômenos precedentes. Linguagem midiática. Nomes precedentes

universais. Conhecimento tematizado. Estruturas cognitivas de personalidade linguística.

RESUMEN: La relevancia de este trabajo consiste en el hecho de que los fenómenos

determinantes, que transmiten valores de cultura tanto convencionales como nuevas, gozan de

una representación muy amplia en el lenguaje de medios de difusión que son el instrumento de

comunicación clave en la sociedad moderna. Aquí se propone el enfoque cognitivo intentado a

identificar el papel de conocimientos (lingüísticos, no lingüísticos, individuales) en la

formación del sentido de unidades determinantes. Este sentido es el objeto principal de

investigación en ciencias cognitivas. Se indica por los ejemplos de nombres determinantes

universales (Napoleón, Cenicienta, Don Quijote, Adán) que ellos almacenan conocimientos

culturales de valor (tematizados) que son compartidos por los comunicadores y funcionan

generalmente de modo implícito. El estudio de las estructuras binarias (designador/designado)

de un concepto define:dinámica del desarrollo del sentido de un nombre determinante;cambios

relevantes estructurales en las componentes clave del sentido;desemantización del nombre

determinante. Las diferencias entre las interpretaciones Rusa y Español denotan las

differencias en su contenido principal y muestran que el sentido lingüístico de un invariante de

nombre determinante universal refleja no la realidad tal como se encuentra pero las

estructuras cognitivas de la identidad lingüística de una sociedead particular.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Fenómenos determinantes. Lenguaje de medios de difusión. Nombres

determinates universales. Conocimientos tematizados. Estructuras cognitivas de identidad

identidad lingüística

Introduction

The relevance of the study lies in the scientific interest in the phenomenon of precedence

which occupies an essential place in the discourse paradigm of the Russian and Spanish

languages. The role of precedent phenomena in organizing medial space and their functioning

in media text (characterized by maximum intertextuality) is studied on the Russian and Spanish

material.

The study aims to analyze the actualization of the precedent category in the media text.

To achieve this goal, the authors set the following tasks:

 To make an inventory of the means for expressing precedence by a linguistic identity

and to develop a typology of precedent phenomena (by the example of the Russian and Spanish

linguocultures);

 To cognitively and semantically structure a precedent space of a linguistic identity

as a formalized body of knowledge;

 To conduct an integrated study of precedent units actualized in media text in

cognitive, semantic and discourse-related projections;

 To model a cognitive mechanism of interpreting media text based on precedent units.

Typology of precedent phenomena

The precedent phenomena (hereinafter PP), being a vital component of any national

culture, are most widely represented in the language of mass media – the most important

communication environment of modern society. Today, mass media offer a certain picture

where the world is not reflected but interpreted. Thus, precedent phenomena/precedent units

(hereinafter PU) occupy a special place in the media reality as a product of mass media

information activity and transmit both traditional and newly created cultural values.

Initially, in Russian linguistics, Karaulov (1987) introduced a concept of precedent text

(hereinafter PT) which was defined as a text 1) stored in the mind of a native speaker of a

particular language community; 2) representing a cultural fact significant for a linguistic

identity; and 3) repeatedly updated in the discourse of a linguistic identity (KARAULOV,

2010).

A PT implied attribution only to literary texts; later, a more detailed definition appears

– PP of the national and world culture are known to all the native speakers, stored in their minds

and repeated in everyday discourse. The issue of space demarcation (covered by the category

of precedence) remains open to discussion. Usually, it includes the names of fiction works, of

authors and literary characters, of films, popular radio and television programs, quotes, winged

words or aphorisms, i.e. any kind of a ‘foreign word’.

The typology of PP is the most developed subject in the theory of precedence. The main

criteria for classifying PP allows distributing them across several levels: auto-precedent,

socially-precedent, national-precedent, and universal-precedent, and by the following types:

precedent text, precedent statement, precedent situation, precedent name. Traditional

classification of PP based on their aspectual identity was suggested by D. B. Gudkov and V. V.

Krasnykh (GUDKOV, 2000; 2003; KRASNYKH, 2002); they distinguish four kinds of PP

depending on what is mentioned − a phrase from a literary work, history or politics; a date, A

place of event, or a key personality.

1. Precedent text

Such works as Don Quixote (El ingenioso hidalgo Don Quijote de la Mancha) by M.

Cervantes, The Scoffer of Seville (El Burlador de Sevilla) by Tirso de Molina, Celestina (La

Celestina) by Fernando de Rojas, the fairy tales A Thousand and One Nights, etc. can

undoubtedly serve as examples of PT for the Spanish linguistic identity.

2. Precedent Statement (hereinafter PSt)

Usually, it is a phrase from a literary work or a statement of a politician or a historical

person, for instance, Este señor posee un ‘!Ábrete, Sésamo!’ (IRIBARREN, 1996, p. 636) –

‘This gentleman has a magic word’. It is about the spell ‘Open, Sesame!’ mentioned in the fairy

tales A Thousand and One Nights.; this magical formula enables robbers to penetrate the cave

where they store their treasures. Compare in Russian: ‘Open, sesame!’ (heading)

Experts believe soon there will be no need for hiding equipment in furniture, walls, and

ceilings: all the systems will be PC-controlled, all the screens hidden and available only at the

owner’s request (KUDASHKINA, 2004).

3. Precedent Situation (hereinafter PS) is a reference situation with a particular set of

differential features, for example, the kiss of Judas which is understood as a standard act of

betrayal.

The following example criticizes the Spanish government which continues to organize

costly and useless congresses under its presidency of the EU in conditions of economic crisis.

El único culpable de la lamentable situación en que se encuentra la economía española

es un presidente que empezó negando la crisis, pasó a asegurar que no afectaría a España, … y

organiza, de Cádiz a San Sebastián, congresos tan caros como inútiles, para celebrar su fugaz

presidencia de Europa. La banda del Titanic, interpretando valses, mientras el transatlántico se

hundía, no lo hizo mejor (CARASCAL, 2010). – The situation can be compared only with the

orchestra on The Titanic, which is playing waltzes while the ship is sinking.

In the following example, the PS is associated with the name of the Spanish poet

Federico García Lorca.

Estábamos probando el elevalunas ante una señal de prohibido aparcar cuando nos cortó

el rollo una pareja de la Benemérita. Mi amigo es andaluz y, en presencia del cuerpo, no puede

evitar pensar en Federico.

– We stood under the ‘No parking’ sign when a pair of gendarmes suddenly appeared

before us (literally a couple of Honored; la Benemérita in Spanish is related to la Guardia Civil).

My friend is from Andalusia, and at the sight of gendarmes, he immediately has the image of

Federico.

The fragment ‘Andalusia – a pair of gendarmes – Federico’ creates a precedent situation

of Federico García Lorca executed by gendarmes on the way to Granada during the Spanish

Civil War.

The following related to the conquest of Mexico can be regarded as a PS – to prevent a

retreat, Hernan Cortes decides to burn the caravels on which the Spanish conquistadors arrived

during the first expedition. This is the origin of the phraseological unit ‘quemar las naves’

(literall, to burn the ships) – ‘to take an extraordinary decision (MARTÍNEZ DE SOUSA,

2008).

4. Precedent name (hereinafter PN)

The authors of the article ‘Civilización y cultura. La cognitiva de una cultura tradicional’

list the following cultural characters significant for the Spanish society: el Quijote, Sancho Panza,

el Cid

, Don Juan, los Reyes Católicos, el maestro Ciruela

, Boabdil

, el Ratoncito Pérez,

Mariquita Pérez

, la bruja Piruja, Caperucita Roja, Cristóbal Colón, el capitán Trueno

, el

Empecinado (VYSHNYA AND MUÑOZ, 2007). Popular comic heroes Superlópez (the parody

on Superman), Mortadelo and Filemón can also be added here.

Precedence and interdiscursivity

Interaction between different cultural codes which can also create precedence can be

illustrated by the examples from the electronic magazines ‘Utro’ and ‘Kommersant’. Figure 1

provides information about the restoration of a famous monument:

Cid – Castilian knight Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (1026-1099), known for his feats of arms during the Reconquista,

nicknamed ‘Campeador (Warrior)’ by the Christians (Volkova and Dementiev, 2006).

The character of the children's book of F. Almen, the teacher Ciruela is strangely dressed but uses revolutionary

pedagogy in class (less cramming, more practice) and is more like a friend or a father figure. Currently, the

following expression can be found in Latin America: decimos que alguien es un ‘maestro ciruela’ cuando se

empeña en dar a todos lecciones sobre asuntos que conoce poco y mal (The Ciruela teacher is the one who teaches

what he does not understand).

Boabdil is the last Moorish emir of Granada, forcibly expelled after the Spanish conquest (1942). According to

the legend, when he last saw Granada from the hill, Boabdil wept, for which he received a bitter reproach from his

mother: Lloras como mujer lo que no supiste defender como hombre (You mourn as a woman that you could not

protect like a man). Since then, the hill south of Granada is called Suspiro del Moro – Moor's Grief (Volkova and

Dementiev, 2006).

Mariquita Pérez – famous doll in the forties of XX century in Spain, sold with sets of clothes (the prototype of

the modern Barbie). Due to high price (95 pesetas), only children from wealthy families could afford it (Volkova

and Dementiev, 2006).

El capitán Trueno (Captain Thunder) – a fearless hero of a series of hand-drawn comics popular in Spain in the

50-60s of the XX century (Volkova and Dementiev, 2006).

Figure 1. I. Shadr ‘Cobblestone as a weapon of proletariat’, Moscow, 1927

Source: Author’s archive

(1) The Moscow City Government allocated 5 million rubles for the restoration of

‘Cobblestone as a Weapon of Proletariat’, one of the most famous monuments by Ivan Shadr,

erected on the Krasnopresnenskaya Outpost. The sculpture depicts a worker brandishing a rock

in an aggressively tense pose. The monument, created in 1927, became a symbol of the young

state (VIKSTREM, 2011).

Messages (2) and (3) are actually interdiscursive, since semiotics of one discourse is

placed within the framework of the other, which creates new meanings based on precedence.

(2) Sobyaninskij tile is painted on concrete

Clever workers made concrete sidewalks in the center of Moscow and lined them with

a spatula, creating a fake pattern of decorative tiles. Bloggers suggested these particularly

innovative ‘tiles’ could not be stolen to be used as weapons of proletariat (Osadchaya, 2011).

(3) Information from the blog by ‘the eremite’

Everything will be fine! If not, a cobblestone is a weapon of proletariat!

In fact, PP were highlighted in Russian and foreign linguistics, and diverse studies were

devoted to them (KOSTOMAROV; BURVIKOVA, 1996; GUDKOV et al., 1997; GUDKOV,

2000; KRASNYKH, 2003; SLYSHKIN, 2000; KUZMINA, 2011; FATEEVA, 2000;

DENISOVA, 2003; NAKHIMOVA, 2011; KUSHNERUK, 2006; VOROZHTSOVA, 2007;

OLIZKO, 2009; AGUIRRE, 2001; RODRÍGUEZ; MORA, 2002; MARTÍNEZ, 2006;

VYSHNYA; MUÑOZ, 2007; ROJO, 2008; SÁNCHEZ, 2009; LUQUE, 2009).

Linguistic theories of precedence and intertextuality widely describe PP; researchers

study them in the context of metaphorization and functioning in various discourses and consider

them within such disciplines as cultural linguistics and intercultural communication.

It is generally accepted that any PP consists of linguistic (forming the basis for linguistic

competence) and phenomenological (knowledge and ideas about extralinguistic phenomena)

cognitive structures (KARAULOV, 2004) and requires a three-dimensional comprehension –

language, consciousness, and culture.

In the present study, precedence is understood as a transpersonal cognitive category

reflecting the foreknowledge in discourse-related actualization when correlated with

communicative situation and intentions of a linguistic identity (AUTHOR, 2015).

PP are newly considered in broader cognitive terms, which allows extending the existing

approaches. The suggested cognitive approach is associated with identifying the role of

knowledge (linguistic, non-linguistic, individual) in the formation of the meaning of the PU;

such meanings are the primary object of research in cognitive science.

Materials and methods

The methodological bases of the study were: the concept of linguistic identity

(KARAULOV, 1987); researches in the field of language consciousness (SOROKIN, 1998;

TARASOV, 2004; UFIMTSEVA, 2005); the theory of precedence (KARAULOV, 1987;

GUDKOV 2000; 2003; GRISHAEVA, 2004; KRASNYKH, 2001; 2002; 2003; SLYSHKIN,

2000; AUTHOR, 2015); theories of intertextuality (BAKHTIN, 1975; DENISOVA, 2003;

ILYIN, 1996; KUZMINA, 2011; FATEEVA, 2000; CHERNYAVSKAYA, 2009; BARTHES,

1970; KRISTEVA, 1974; PIÉGAY-GROS, 1996); cognitive theory (BOLDYREV, 2001;

DEMYANKOV, 2005; IRISKHANOVA, 2001; KIBRIK, 1994; KUBRYAKOVA, 2004;

POPOVA; STERNIN, 2010; LAKOFF; JOHNSON, 2003; TURNER, 1994; FILLMORE,

1976; FAUCONNIER, 1994); the theory of discourse (ARUTIUNOVA, 1990; BORBOTKO,

2011; KARASIK, 2002; MAKAROV, 2003; STEPANOV, 2004; VAN DIJK, 2011; SÉRIOT;

TABOURET, 2004); research in the field of mass-media discourse (DOBROSKLONSKAYA,

2008; KOBOZEVA, 2001; SMETANINA, 2002; CHERNYSHOVA, 2014); cross-cultural

studies and research in the field of linguoculturology (WIERZBICKA, 1997; VOROB'EV,

2008, GUREVICH, 2017; LOTMAN, 2004; MASLOVA, 2011; AUTHOR, 2018; etc.).

The following methods were used to study the PP:

1) Component semantic analysis of a number of PP (precedent names) based on data

from lexicographic sources;

2) Discourse analysis of precedent phenomena taking into account extra-linguistic

measurement of speech interaction (views, values, and attitudes of addressees), etc.;

3) Methodology of linguocognitive modeling (modeling the meaning structure of the

UP, modeling the meaning formation).

The working assumption of this study is that cognitive structures, crucial for

actualization in media text and correlated with foreknowledge, are the basis of precedent

phenomena. Cognitive structures ensure that communicants are familiar with cognitive

meanings and contribute to understanding and interpretation of precedent phenomena.

Thematized (shared) knowledge and cognitive mechanism of thematization of communicative

space at the expense of precedent units allow implementing various discursive strategies.

The material of the study was a corpus of PP widely represented in Spanish media texts.

The primary analysis was based on printed and electronic media published from 2001 to 2014.

Contrastive analysis and confirmation of universal patterns of the precedence category

actualization was based on the examples from the Russian mass media – newspapers

‘Vedomosti’; ‘Zavtra’, ‘Izvestia’; ‘Kommersant’; ‘Komsomolskaya Pravda’; ‘Moskovsky

Komsomolets’; ‘RBK Daily’; ‘Russkaya Gazeta’ and ‘Utro’, as well as from fiction, the Bible

and Internet sources in Spanish and Russian.

The work included the following stages:

 Possible interference processes while applying PP were described;

 Universal precedent names common to Spanish and Russian linguocultures were

defined;

 Universal precedent names were described, linguocognitive modelling of the

structure of their meaning as the structure of knowledge representation was effectuated,

cognitive-semiotic modelling was employed.

A wide selection of the studied Spanish and Russian language facts (more than 3000

PU) proves the authenticity and substantiation of the obtained results.

Results

Interference processes in the field of precedence

In the works of Russian linguists, the sources of precedent units that function in different

types of discourse are compared. Specialists in Russian culture describe different types of

communication as literary centrism, a constant reference to literary texts (KONDAKOV, 2005).

According to G.V. Denisova (2003), the linguistic and cultural behavior of Russians at the

current stage is characterized by a passion for citing, the principle of dialogueness, and extra

attention to the language game.

O. A. Vorozhtsova (2007), who studied precedent phenomena in the Russian and

American presidential election discourse, notes that literature was most popular in the

discussion of the Russian presidential elections, and politics in the American presidential

elections; it confirms the thesis about literary centrism of the Russian nation.

S.L. Kushneruk, who studies appeals to precedent names in Russian and US

advertisements (KUSHNERUK, 2006), also notes the literary centrism of Russian advertising,

while American ads are characterized by cinema centrism. According to Kushneruk, in Russian

advertising (in contrast to American) universal-precedent names are widely used, which

indicates a higher degree of permeability of Russian culture, as do numerous PU from Spanish

and Latin American literature, for instance:

Probably, the most remarkable thing in life of the late Leonid Ilyich was his long

departure – a chronicle of death, announced many times, like Márquez's

. He was buried many

times, but still, Brezhnev's death became both unanticipated and expected end of the entire era

(CHUZHAKIN, 2004).

The film by Spanish director P. Almodóvar (born 1949) Mujeres al borde de un ataque

de nervios (1988) (Women on the verge of a nervous breakdown) might have served as the

basis for the title of the book by M. A. Krongauz ‘Russian language on the verge of a nervous

breakdown’ (KRONGAUZ, 2008).

An allusion to the famous song of the 1990s – Honduras, Honduras, where is your

working class? – acts as a PT among the members on an Internet forum.

A new variety of Belarusian selection pears Simply, Maria is based on a PT – the

Mexican novel ‘Simplemente María’

Researchers (SMETANINA, 2002) note that in the modern mass media discourse which

demonstrates the signs of postmodernism and is characterized by a mixture of documental and

literary discourses, the factual side is reduced and is included in the conditional context which

turns out to be much more interesting than the information itself.

Playing with PT is a favorite game of journalists; according to V. Elistratov (2000),

constant play with quotes led to modern Russian journalism being, in fact, a precedent.

Crónica de una muerte anunciada (1981) (Chronicle of the Declared Death) – a story of Colombian writer Gabriel

Garcia Márquez (1927–2014).

Simply Maria was the third soap opera (after the Brazilian The Slave Izaura and the Mexican The Rich also Cry)

shown in Russia (premiered on March 9, 1993 at the State TV and Radio Company ‘Ostankino’). Compare the

underlying precedent of The Rich also Cry in the following headline: The rich also pay. Russia wants to introduce

a progressive scale of income tax (Bfm.ru, 2015).

Inability to work with PT is qualified as low speech culture (KOSTOMAROV;

BURVIKOVA, 1996). Possible failures in communication caused by not knowing the PT are

commented upon in ‘Semantic dictionary’ by A.E. Bochkarev (2003) regarding an actual

situation in public transport in Russia:

- What time is it now? (he)

- I'm happy (she).

Any Russian familiar with the school curriculum will correlate this situation with a

quote from the comedy of Alexander Griboyedov: ‘Happiness takes no account of time’. In this

context, the phrase ‘I am happy’, most likely, apart from indifference to the factor of time, will

mean that the lady has no watch on her – a meaning completely incomprehensible to a

foreigner

whose cognitive base does not include PT ‘The Woe from Wit’. In this case, the

absence of a unified cognitive space generates a conflict of interpretations.

A precedent name can be used in a discourse either referentially or intentionally (for

characterizing people, objects, situations), i.e., in denotative and non-denotative meanings.

Compare, for example, the use of a precedent name in denotative (primary) meaning in the

work of E. A. Nakhimova ‘The precedent name of Kerensky in modern domestic media’

(NAKHIMOVA, 2011). However, most studies are related to functioning of precedent names

in a connotative (metaphorical) meaning of the type: He is a real Plyushkin.

Precedent names related to the Russian culture usually have a denotative status in the

Spanish-speaking literature and the press:

Movimiento tolstoyano – movement of the Tolstoyans;

Memorias de un tolstoyano – notes of a Tolstoyan (SANTIVÁN, 1955).

Works of F.M. Dostoevsky, one of the most famous and widely-read writers in the

world, in Spanish created a series of word combinations reflecting the writer's psychology:

pregunta dostoyevskiana (a question in the spirit of Dostoevsky); auténtica conmoción

espiritual dostoyevskiana (spiritual quest in line with Dostoevsky); la visión introspectiva y

dostoyevskiana (an inner vision as Dostoevsky had).

However, researchers of interference processes due to Russian and Spanish language

contacts note the significative function of adjectives formed on the basis of PN:

… me encantó este vestido que se parece al vestido de Sophie Marceau en Anna

Karenina (ROSE, 1997). – Sí, es kareninesco total (LAREVISTA.EC, 2013) (A dress like the

It is believed that such expression exists in Schiller's drama ‘Piccolomini’ (1800): ‘Die

UhrschlägtkeinemGlücklichen’ (A clock does not strike fo a happy one) (Ashukin and Ashukina, 1987).

one Anna Karenina had). The style in the spirit of Anna Karenina assumes elegance and wealth

of a high society lady, as well as some provocative challenge to society.

When translated into Spanish, Russian precedent units often lose their connection with

the precedent. For example: Hlestakovshchina swaggering – fanfarronería (bragging) (ABBYY

LINGVO, 2018).

Universal-precedent names

Let us consider a mechanism of reinterpreting precedent names in terms of what

properties of a concept make its metaphorical use possible. For instance, the precedent name

‘Napoleon’ can be considered as a ‘figure of knowledge’ (KARAULOV, 2004, p. 9). Linguistic

modeling of this cognitive structure allows creating constructions specifying several cognitive

quanta (meanings), supporting information nodes.

Linguistic and cognitive model of a structure for representing knowledge of the PN

‘Napoleon’ is the following:

- Emperor of France;

- Founder of legislative acts and government institutions (Civil Code, Bank of France,

Legion of Honor);

- Great military leader of France;

- Napoleon's claims to world domination;

- Winner of Austerlitz, Wagram;

- Defeated at Waterloo, etc.

In denotative meaning, PN point directly to denotation, that is, the PN ‘Napoleon’

implies exactly the Emperor. With connotative use, we expect not Napoleon himself (who only

acts as a reference for comparison) but some other person who in some ways resembles the

emperor.

From all the meaning presented (and implied) in the concept ‘Napoleon’ only one,

namely, the claim to world domination, generates an additional content in the Russian and

Spanish cultures. Let us compare the phrase ‘Napoleon's plans’ and the example from the

newspaper ‘El País’:

Aznar, cuando habla en tejano, está convencido de que es Bush, lo que, desde el punto

de vista clínico, es tan grave como creerse Napoleón. Dios nos asista (MILLAS, 2003) – Asnar,

when speaking in Texano, is convinced that he is Bush, which from a clinical point of view is

as difficult as imagining himself Napoleon.

However, the Spanish classical literature stores other metaphors in respect of PN

‘Napoleon’. Thus, P. A. de Alarcon (1833–1891) wrote:

…aquella noche dormímos como Napoleón después de la batalla de Austerlitz

(Alpujarra). – That night we slept like Napoleon after the battle of Austerlitz.

In linguistic consciousness of a Spanish speaker, there is a whole frame associated with

Napoleon's name and with his victories and defeats, which allows adequately interpreting the

comparison proposed by P.A. Alarcon – ‘‘That night we slept soundly’’.

In the linguistic consciousness of a native Russian, the frame associated with the name

‘Napoleon’ contains information about the retreat of Napoleon's troops due to the Russian frost:

We went to the confectionery ‘Jean’. Mom ordered coffee with Napoleon cakes...

Opposite, an incredibly unemotional gentleman in a uniform cap was sitting straight.... I looked

at him and ... Napoleon got stuck in my throat as in the snows of Russia (KASSIL, 2016).

In addition to the Russian frost, in the Russian language consciousness Napoleon is

associated with a cake (millefeuilles in France).

We will bake the Napoleon cake from the readymade puff pastry, yet we’ll take the time

to make the cream ourselves (MOLL4ALL.RU, 2017).

N.S. Panarina (2017), who investigated nuclear (non-peripheral) components of the

meaning of the ‘Napoleon’ concept through an associative experiment among Russian

respondents, notes that in most cases, Napoleon correlates with the cake concept (22%), and

the idea of war (14%) follows.

The frame associated with the name of Napoleon will have other meaning for a native

French speaker. As an illustration of the different ideas, V.V. Krasnykh gives the following

example: ‘‘A Russian, calling someone Napoleon, characterizes them as a person with great

ambitions..., for the French the name of Napoleon is associated, before all, with victories in the

love department’’ (KRASNYKH, 2001, p. 167; 2003, p. 178).

Let us regard the lexical meaning dynamics of PN ‘Napoleon’ (change of the actual

concept layer in terms of cognitive science). In the Russian culture, the name of Napoleon was

once a curse, for example: ‘‘Uh, barbarian! You, damned Bonaparte!’’ – Selifan, Chichikov’s

coachman, scolded the horse this way (GOGOL, 2016).

One reason for failures in intercultural communication is that different ideas are hidden

behind the same name present in different cultures. Thus, for a bearer of the Russian culture,

Napoleon in the battle of Borodino is defeated, and for the French he is a winner (as evidenced

by the exhibition in the museum ‘Hôtel des Invalides’ in Paris).

In the national cultural precedent fields of the Russian linguistic identity and the Spanish

linguistic identity, it is also possible to single out such universally-precedent names as

Cenicienta (Cinderella) in relation to a poor unfortunate girl forced to do all the difficult

housework.

In August 2014, it is better for a Libra to imagine themselves as devices made of iron

and cast iron; otherwise, they cannot withstand the pressures at work. Horoscope advises to

keep fastidiousness for other months, and this month roll up your sleeves and get into the role

of Cinderella (GOROSKOP, 2014).

El país va para abajo. En Asia Oriental, donde todos suben, Filipinas es la Cenicienta

(POCH, 2006).

In this example, the Philippines are called Cinderella – unlike other countries of

Southeast Asia, it is in rather a sad state.

The Cinderella Law (Ley Cenicienta) (LANACION.COM, 2014) means the new law of

the British government, which prescribes punishment for child abuse. As a result of ‘emotional

cruelty towards children’, parents can be given up to 10 years in prison.

Answering the question what prevents a woman from being successful, the American

psychotherapist Colette Dowling points to the fear of women being independent and calls it the

Cinderella complex (DOWLING, 1981), which is expressed in the woman's unconscious desire

to be protected by someone. Like Cinderella, modern women are waiting for a prince who will

change their life.

In the Russian language, the lexeme Cinderella is also used in the sense of ‘a simple girl

who has gained access to the high society, sudden recognition and success’, for example:

The crown of ‘Miss World’ was often won not by professional models but by common

girls... These Cinderellas decided to try their luck in a beauty contest without having model

skills.

After three years as a waitress in a backwoods bar, Cinderella won her first teen beauty

contest – it was the first call to change her life dramatically.

K.V. Zavyalova (2007), who studied the functioning of the precedent name Cinderella

in different cultures, notes that for the American and Spanish respondents the fairy tale

‘Cinderella’ is a combination of myth and reality, for the Hungarian respondents it is only a

childhood memory that will never become reality, and only in the Russian linguistic and cultural

community the fairy tale is perceived as a story that can happen to anyone. For example:

The story of the actress and model Olga Kurylenko is another fairy tale about Cinderella

turned into reality. A simple girl from the city of Berdyansk became a citizen of France, ‘Bond’s

girl’ and Tom Cruise's partner in the film ‘Oblivion’ (SMIRNOVA, 2013).

As can be easily seen, the same character gets a different interpretation in different

languages and cultures.

Foreign cultural names in the Russian discourse are mostly (64%) associated with a

positive assessment – Einstein, Harry Potter, James Bond, Bill Gates, Robin Hood, Don

Quixote, Alain Delon, and others (ZHANAEVA, 2008).

Let us consider the universal precedent name ‘Don Quixote’ in this context. Don

Quixote is identified with such concepts as a national symbol, literary myth and the Spanish

spirit. However, social assessment of Don Quixote's image may be different, for example:

El presidente iraní… acertó al rechazar las utopías de los Quijotes modernos, pues él

ha vivido en su propio país uno de los ejemplos más extremos de utopismo revolucionario

(ELPAIS.COM, 2002) – The president of Iran hit the target, rejecting utopian views of modern

Don Quixotes.

Here the PN ‘Don Quixote’ sounds like a symbol of utopia, as opposed to, for example,

the Russian literary tradition where the image of Don Quixote symbolizes a romantic and an

adventurer (STEIN, 2001). In the Russian culture, the name ‘Don Quixote’ turned into a concept

name (the term of S. D. LIKHACHEV (2014)), i.e., a name that reflects (like Khlestakov,

Oblomov, Plyushkin, etc.) the specific national and cultural nature of the Russian character and

mentality. As I.S. Turgenev wrote, ‘‘When Don Quixotes disappears, let the history book be

closed. There will be nothing to read in it’’ (TURGENEV, 1980).

M. Moliner gives the following characteristics to a person to whom the name ‘Don Quixote’

can be applied: persona que está siempre dispuesta a intervenir en los asuntos que no le atañen,

endefensa de la justicia (MOLINER, 1998) – a person who, in defense of justice, is always ready

to intervene in matters that do not concern him/her.

In the Russian culture, the image of Don Quixote is positively marked, in contrast to the

native Spanish culture, where it can even be used with a hint of contempt: Generalmente, no se

emplea con sentidoadmirativo, y puede tenerlo despectivo (MOLINER, 1998).

In Spain, the name of Don Quixote had many interpretations for more than four

centuries, since the publication of the work by M. Cervantes. For example, in 1905, when the

300th anniversary of the novel was celebrated, a real battle unfolded in Catalonia – Catalonian

nationalists believed that there was nothing to celebrate, and Don Quixote was perceived as a

symbol of the most conservative Spanish nationalism, the Catalans laughed at his follies and

mocked his exploits (SAVATER; RIERA, 2004). Nevertheless, Don Quixote continues to be

not only a national hero but also a Spanish national brand.

At the heart of the universal PN ‘Don Quixote’ lie various differential signs in different

languages. Yu.A. Rylov, who experimented with Russian, Spanish, and Italian students who had

to interpret the phrase ‘behaves like Don Quixote’, makes a conclusion about heterogeneity of

the concept ‘Don Quixote’ in different cultures (RYLOV, 2004). It destroys some stereotypes

about the international character of universally-precedent names: the same precedent name in

one language may have a broader range of connotations than the other or even be lacking

connotations. The sphere of using PN ‘Don Quixote’ distinguishing nationally determined

differential characteristics is given in Table 1.

Table1. Cognitive-semiotic PN model El Quijote / Donchisciotte / Дон Кихот

Designator

Designatum

Spanish

El Quijote

Always ready to make a stand for justice;

intervenes where he does not belong; acts

foolishly

Italian

Donchisciotte

Romantic, idealistic but with elements of

stubbornness and perseverance

Russian

Don Quixote

Behaves nobly, unselfishly; idealist,

unsophisticated dreamer, adventurer

Source: Devised by the authors

The axiological characteristics of the universal precedent name are a special matter – a

PN must meet aesthetic and moral needs of the host culture. In the Russian picture of the world,

there has always been a desire for an ideal, for nobleness. Therefore, the PN ‘Don Quixote’

correlates in Russian with the cognitive concept of a noble and unselfish person.

Cases when the same PN is stored in cultures but has different meanings (one designator

for different designate) are usually qualified as factors that can cause deviances in intercultural

communication, for example, the biblical name ‘Adam’.

Table 2. Cognitive-semiotic model of PN Adán / Adam

Spanish

Russian

Designator

Designatum

Designator

Designatum

Adán

dirty, ragged man

Adam

as old as Adam

naked as Adam

Source: Devised by the authors

The case where different PN have the same meaning in cultures (one designatum has

different designators) can be illustrated as follows:

Table 3. Cognitive-semiotic PN model ‘unwillingness to do anything’

Language

Designatum

Designator (PN)

Spanish

Refusal to do anything:

¡Que lo haga San Pedro!

(No lo voy a hacer yo)

– lit. Let Saint Peter do it

San Pedro – St. Peter

Russian

Unwillingness to do anything:

And who will wash the dishes?

Pushkin?

And who will take the chairs back to the

places? Pushkin?

Pushkin

Source: Devised by the authors

‘Dictionary of Russian argot’ which describes the vocabulary of a limited sphere of

usage, describes the lexical unit ‘Pushkin’ as a common noun. In the foreword to the

‘Dictionary’, the author emphasizes: ‘‘The name of any person can be an object of jargon

travesty – from Pushkin and the Pope to Gorbachev and Yeltsin’’ (ELISTRATOV, 2000: 8). In

particular, the entry ‘Pushkin’ in the Dictionary is as follows.

Pushkin, -s somebody unknown; only God knows who it is.

Who will pay, Pushkin?

Tales of Pushkin (humorously) – a lie, deceit, fabrications.

Both in Russian and Spanish, the novel by the French writer F. Rabelais ‘‘A Tale of the

Preuspicious Life of the Great Gargantua, Father of Pantagruel’’ (RABELAIS, 2016) is used

as a precedent text. The character Pantagruel, the son of Gargantua, had intemperance in

everything, was a merry fellow and a hearty eater. In the prologue to his work, F. Rabelais

defines the adjective pantagruélico as one referring to liveliness of spirit, which characterizes

a contempt for hardships of fate. Adjective pantagruélico has currently been used in Spanish

only in relation to a hearty meal. For example:

…un banquete pantagruélico, comida pantagruélica (GARCÍA, 2001) – plentiful food,

as for Pantagruel, tables groaned with food at the banquet.

In the Russian language, precedent units of the novel refer both to abundant food (café-

restaurant ‘Gargantua’, restaurant ‘Pantagruel’, osteria ‘Pantagruel’ in Kiev) and to

intemperance, insatiability.

Café-restaurant ‘Gargantua’

There is a Rabelaisian spirit in here. Happy hunting ground for slaves of stomach!

Portions are large and tasty, the atmosphere relaxed (peterout.ru);

Gerard the Rabelaisian

Gerard Depardieu was noted in the Kazakh film ‘Unexpected Love’ by Sabit

Kurmanbekov and tried on an unkempt beard of Grishka Rasputin in the French television series

that is being shot right now in Russia – an immoderate, irrepressible and insatiable film-

Gargantua (EGGS.COM.UA, 2011).

Discussion

The typology of PP identified by the example of Spanish linguoculture reflects the

typology developed for the Russian linguistic identity (GUDKOV, 2000; 2003; KRASNYKH,

2002). Interdiscursive precedent here is new; it is understood as an interaction among cultural

codes of different types when semiotics of one discourse is placed in the framework of another,

which creates new meanings based on precedence.

PN was specified as a type of PP, which is most common in terms of its universal use.

At the same time, the Russian culture is characterized by a higher degree of permeability as to

the use of universal PN in comparison with the Spanish culture.

Cognitive perspective applied to universal-precedent names allowed considering them

as the concepts that generate additional content; this additional content is found out using

phenomenological cognitive structures (knowledge of extra-linguistic nature). (KARAULOV,

2004).

The use of universal PN (Napoleon, Cinderella, Don Quixote, Adam) as examples

revealed that they store culturally relevant knowledge shared by communicants (thematized),

which usually functions in implicit form. One name is found in different cultures may mask

different ideas due to the differential and axiological characteristics that form its basis. It

destroys some sort of stereotypes about the international nature of universal PN.

Conclusions

Cognitive perspective of the study allowed considering such relevant problems of

linguistics as: relationship between cognition and understanding, secondary semiosis, semantic

diffusivity, blurred boundaries of meaning, dependence of lexeme on context and on the

interpreter's apperception, mechanism of constructing meanings, etc.

Thus, the study of the concept’s binary structures (designator/designatum) proves that

the formation of lexical meaning of a PN and, in particular, of a universally-precedent name,

occurs with the help of specifically structured knowledge based on cognitive structures of

knowledge representation that go beyond the linguistic framework structure towards a field of

extra-linguistic, linguistic-cultural codes.

Differences in invariant perception and interpretation of universal PN in Russian and

Spanish show that the linguistic structures of these names reflect not the reality as such but the

cognitive structures of a linguistic identity of a particular society.

Shared (thematized) knowledge that involves precedent units as its carriers, has a great

potential for creating a wide range of communicative meanings and implementing specific

communicative goals.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: The publication has been prepared with the support of the RUDN

University Program 5-100

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How to reference this article

MOISEENKO, L. V.; MIKHEEVA, N. F. Precedent phenomena of the contemporary Russian

and Spanish mass media as cognitive structures of a linguistic identity. Rev. EntreLínguas,

Araraquara, v. 7, n. esp. 4, e021074, Nov. 2021. e-ISSN: 2447-3529.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.29051/el.v7iesp.4.15611

Submitted: 09/02/2022

Required revisions: 20/05/2022

Approved: 05/09/2022

Published: 10/11/2022

OS FENÔMENOS PRECEDENTES DE MEIOS DE COMUNICAÇÃO

CONTEMPORÂNEOS DA RÚSSIA E ESPANHA COMO ESTRUTURAS

COGNITIVAS DE UMA IDENTIDADE LINGUÍSTICA